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Perceived Costs consists of one construct, Response Costs, which measures the perceived social, monetary, personal, time and effort costs from adapting the protective. Protection motivation theory constructs accounted for 62% of variance in intention. Protection motivation theory (PMT) is a prominent example of a motivational theory of health behavior first described by Rogers in 1975 [20]. The scale was assessed among a sample of 553 Chinese vocational high school students. The three items comprising Severity assess the perceived negative health consequences from smoking, e.g., “Smokers die earlier than nonsmokers.” The three items of the Vulnerability construct measure the perceived likelihood of being affected by tobacco-related negative health consequences, for example “I would get sick if I smoke.” The Intrinsic Rewards items focus on the perceived positive biological and psychological effects from smoking, for example “Smoking makes people feel comfortable.” Next, the three items compromising Extrinsic Rewards evaluate the perceived psycho-social benefits from smoking, including “Smoking is good for social networking.” The Self-Efficacy items assess an individual’s belief of his or her ability to refuse to smoke tobacco, for example “No one could persuade me if I do not want to smoke.” The Response Efficacy items are focused on an individual’s belief that nonsmoking is an effective approach for good health. The scale may be a critical tool for PMT-based tobacco research in China and an addition to the tools available for any theory-based intervention research in China [68]. A person may be isolated if…does not smoke, 20. Overall, perception of a greater threat will decrease the probability of selecting and engaging in a maladaptive behavior, whereas perception of a greater reward will increase the probability of selecting a maladaptive behavior. Among the total 553 students, 275 (49.73%) were male, 300 (54.25%) were year-one students, and 253 (45.75%) were year-two students with a mean age of 16.31 years (SD = 1.12). The scale provides a tool for assessing social cognitive processes underlying tobacco use. Even if all who around me smoke, that do not mean I must smoke, 15. Using fear appeals to engender threats and fear that motivate protective behaviors in users, http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2292761, Motivating the insider to protect organizational information assets: Evidence from protection motivation theory and rival explanations, The impact of organizational commitment on insiders’ motivation to protect organizational information assets, https://is.theorizeit.org/w/index.php?title=Protection_motivation_theory&oldid=880. "Understanding Information Systems Security Policy Compliance: An Integration of the Theory of Planned Behavior and the Protection Motivation Theory," Computers & Security (31:1), pp. The constructs in the model were coupled to two cognitive processes believed to determine the protection motivation: threat appraisaland coping appraisal. Weiss JW, Palmer PH, Chou CP, Mouttapa M, Johnson CA. The two primary PMT pathways, Threat Appraisal and Coping Appraisal, were associated with intentions to smoke and the number of cigarettes smoked per day. Quit smoking is good for disease recovery, 19. 353-363. "Understanding Anti-Plagiarism Software Adoption: An Extended Protection Motivation Theory Perspective," Decision Support Systems (50:2), pp. The PMT further stipulates that the emotional state of fear arousal influences … PMT has been widely used in the West as a framework for researchers to investigate and understand a range of health-related behaviors [7,8]. 153-176. "Fighting Identity Theft: The Coping Perspective," Decision Support Systems (52:2), pp. Wu Y, Stanton BF, Li X, Galbraith J, Cole ML. Protection motivation “the protection motivation concept involves any threat for which there is an effective recommended response that can be carried out by the individual” (Floyd et al. Cronbach α and item-total correlation were used to assess the reliability of the individual PMT constructs. Increases in Perceived Efficacy and declines in Perceived Costs will decrease the likelihood of selecting a maladaptive risk behavior. The mean scores (SD) for the seven PMT constructs varied from 2.36 (1.44) for Intrinsic Rewards to 5.88 (1.36) for Severity. The role of social networks and media receptivity in predicting age of smoking initiation: a proportional hazards model of risk and protective factors. “The impact of organizational commitment on insiders’ motivation to protect organizational information assets,” Journal of Management Information Systems (JMIS) (forthcoming). Self-efficacy: Thought control of action. Vaughan E. Chronic exposure to an environmental hazard: risk perceptions and self-protective behavior. already built in. The purpose of the vocational high school program is to prepare students for a job by providing them with specific technical skills. Cognitive and physiological processes in fear appeal and attitude change: A revised theory of protection motivation. "Fear Appeals and Information Security Behaviors: An Empirical Study," MIS Quarterly (34:1), pp. This article re-introduced the idea of the fear appeal from PMT to the IS field. The three-year vocational high school education is established for middle school graduates who did not advance to regular high school. Effects through 24 months of an HIV/AIDS prevention intervention program based on protection motivation theory among preadolescents in the Bahamas. 361-369. Wang XW, Niu J, Zhou H. Analysis of Protection Motivation Theory on young people smoking behavior. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology. Unger JB, Yan L, Chen X, Jiang X, Azen S, et al. Fry RB, Prentice-Dunn S. Effects of a psychosocial intervention on breast self-examination attitudes and behaviors. Approval of the school administration was obtained before students were sampled; in addition, informed consent was obtained from the students and their parents before the survey was administered. Grenard JL, Guo Q, Jasuja GK, Unger JB, Chou CP, et al. Students were sampled from a typical school with a medium school size and multi-occupational directions. To validate reported smoking data, levels of carbon monoxide (CO) in the exhaled air were assessed using PiCO+™ (Smokerlyzer carbon monoxide monitor, USA). Wurtele SK, Maddux JE. The life of a smoker is happier than a nonsmoker, 13. One will miss the enjoyment if he or she does not smoke. The measurement scale was created by our research team with extensive feedback from researchers, school teachers and students. Floyd DL, Prentice-dunn S, Rogers RW. 837–864. Perceived Threat and its two constructs were negatively associated with the intention to and the actual smoking behavior; Perceived Rewards and its two constructs were positively associated with the intention to and the actual smoking behavior; while higher Self-Efficacy and higher Response Efficacy were negatively associated with smoking intention and smoking measures and higher Response Cost was positively associated with smoking intention and smoking behavior measures. The variable intention to smoke was assessed using data from the survey question: “How likely is it that you will smoke cigarettes in a year?” (1= very unlike and 5=very likely). The mean score of the 21 items was 4.20 (SD=0.66), slightly greater than the middle point (=4.00) of the seven-point Likert Scale. Influences affecting adolescent smoking behavior in China. Anderson, C. L., and Agarwal, R. 2010. Items were developed based on constructs of the PMT and from empirical data from related studies on adolescent health risk behaviors [24,25,29,53–58]. This theory, which is based on expectancy-value theory, was proposed by Rogers in 1975 to explain the effects of fear on attitudes in health behaviors also he argued that fear could affect the protection motivation through the constructs of self-efficacy, response efficiency, response costs, perceived vulnerability, and perceived severity . For example, although the overall mean score of the 21 items = 4.20, close to the middle point 4 of the 7-point Likert scale (indicating good scale responsiveness); the mean scores for several items were either too small (e.g. Claar, C. L., and Johnson, J. A cluster randomized controlled trial of an adolescent HIV prevention program among Bahamian youth: effect at 12 months post-intervention. The survey was administered by trained data collectors from Wuhan Centers for Disease Prevention and Control. Tanner JF, Hunt JBE, David R. The Protection Motivation Model: A Normative Model of Fear Appeals. Protection Motivation Theory into an information security context. The ePub format is best viewed in the iBooks reader. Smoking cessation: an application of theory of planned behavior to understanding progress through stages of change. Severity assesses the perceived negative consequences from a risk behavior, and Vulnerability assesses the perceived likelihood of the individual being affected by potential negative consequences. Rates of tobacco use among adolescents in China and other lower and middle-income countries remain high despite notable prevention and intervention programs. 113-132. Refusing a cigarette offer is very impolite, 21. The earlier a person starts smoking, the greater the harm, 2. Psychosocial correlates of cigarette smoking among college students in China. Clay Posey, Tom L. Roberts, and Paul Benjamin Lowry (2015). Intrinsic Rewards, 0.61 for Extrinsic Rewards, 0.73 for Self-Efficacy, 0.68 for Responsive Efficacy, and 0.59 for Response Cost respectively. Lai, F., Li, D., and Hsieh, C.-T. 2012. Schroeder SA, Fulton DC. The PMT's threat appraisal component is composed of the following: the person's estimate of the severity of the disease (perceived severity) and his or her estimate of the chance of contracting the disease (perceived vulnerability). Wen X, Chen W, Gans KM, Colby SM, Lu C, et al. Risk factors for sexually transmitted disease among rural-to-urban migrants in China: implications for HIV/sexually transmitted disease prevention. In addition to etiological studies, the PMT scale can be used to measure potential mediating-and/or outcome variables when developing and evaluating intervention programs for tobacco use prevention among Chinese adolescents. Here, we report our research findings on: (1) development of the culturally appropriate PMT scale for tobacco research with individual measurement items and subscales representing PMT constructs; (2) psychometric evaluation of the developed scale; and (3) assessment of the association of the PMT constructs with intention to smoke and actual smoking behavior. Data were collected from a student sample in 2010. WoŸniak K, Moes A, Chadzyński R, Domagał‚a-Kulawik J. 177-187. Protection Motivation Theory (PMT) was developed by Rogers in 1975, to describe how individuals are motivated to react in a self-protective way towards a perceived health threat. A social cognitive model named Protection Motivation Theory (PMT) has been developed and widely used in recent years to predict people’s intention to engage in protective behaviors [25–27]. Results suggest the utility of PMT theory and the PMT scale for understanding smoking behavior in a population at great risk for tobacco use, adolescents in China. Ajzen I. Milne S. Prediction and Intervention in Health-Related Behavior: A Meta-Analytic Review of Protection Motivation Theory. One reason for this may be the lack of theory-based research in tobacco use prevention in these countries. Sturges JW, Rogers RW. People will be less likely to get disease if they do not smoke, 18. Zhu BP, Liu M, Wang SQ, He GQ, Chen DH, et al. Effects on condom use of an HIV prevention programme 36 months postintervention: a cluster randomized controlled trial among Bahamian youth. What to convey in antismoking advertisements for adolescents: The use of protection motivation theory to identify effective message themes. Plotnikoff RC, Lippke S, Trinh L, Courneya KS, Birkett N, et al. Perceived Efficacy consists of two constructs, Self-Efficacy and Response Efficacy. Chen X, Li X, Stanton B, Mao R, Sun Z, et al. Perceived Threat consists of two constructs, Severity and Vulnerability. Method: Inactive women ( N = 60) were randomly assigned to one of three groups: (1) PMT intervention, (2) attention control, or (3) non- Plotnikoff RC, Trinh L. Protection motivation theory: is this a worthwhile theory for physical activity promotion? • Studies should consider maladaptive response rewards involved with not vaccinating. behaviors that lead an individual toward a health risk behaviors and/or to noxious consequences) and, 2) Coping Appraisal, assessing the ability to manage and avoid the threatened danger described by Threat Appraisal. Note: r’s are Pearson correlation coefficients. The research protocol was approved by the Human Investigation Committee at Wayne State University, United State and the Institutional Review Board at Wuhan Center for Diseases Prevention and Control, China. LaRose, R., Rifon, N. J., and Enbody, R. 2008. The PMT scale developed for this study consisted of 21 items with three items for each of the seven PMT constructs. The two efficacy constructs were positively associated with each other while Response Costs was negatively associated with the two efficacy constructs. In: Cacioppo JT, Petty RE, editors. Scores for Perceived Rewards were the mean of Intrinsic Rewards and Extrinsic Rewards, and scores for Perceived Efficacy were computed as the mean of Self-Efficacy and Response Efficacy. Yu S, Marshall S, Cottrell L, Li X, Liu H, et al. Wallerstein N, Sanchez-Merki V. Freirian praxis in health education: research results from an adolescent prevention program. 20-29. The protection motivation theory (PMT) is a well-known theory of behaviour change. "Analyzing Home PC Security Adoption Behavior," Journal of Computer Information Systems (52:4), pp. Twenty-two percent of the students reported either likely or very likely to smoke; 74.52% reported having not smoked any cigarette, and 13.5% smoked 5 or more cigarettes per day in the past month. The number of cigarettes smoked per day was measured using data from the question: “During the past 30 days, on the days you smoked, how many cigarettes did you usually smoke per day?” (# of cigarettes per day) To improve data distribution, the reported number of cigarettes per day was categorized into four levels with 1 = “0 cigarettes”, 2 = “1 cigarette”, 3 = “2 to 5 cigarettes”, and 4 = “more than 5 cigarettes”, following the method used in the Youth Risk Behavior Survey [62]. The α coefficient for Vulnerability could be increased. Although slightly weaker than the one-level model with regard to the data-model fit indices, the two-level model fit the data well (chi-square/df = 3.12, RMSEA = 0.06, GFI = 0.96, CFI = 0.96). This survey aimed to explain the health-related behavior of allergic individuals using the protection motivation theory (PMT) and the transtheoretical model (TTM). Two smoking measures were used as outcome variables: intention to smoke and number of cigarettes smoked per day. Scores for Perceived Threat were computed as the mean of Severity and Vulnerability. The theory attempts to explain and predict what motivates people to change their behavior. Health behavior research conducted in more developed countries has consistently demonstrated the importance of a theory-based approach in etiological research to address health risk behaviors. A protection motivation theory of fear appeals and attitude change. Mean scores (SD), item-total correlations and Cronbach α of the PMT constructs are summarized in (Table 2). on the constructs of Protection Motivation Theory (PMT) [1]. Measurement modeling analysis of the threat appraisal. Despite the significance of many behavioral theories, including PMT, in explaining adolescent health behavior in general [7,24,25,51], and tobacco use behavior in particular [2,51], health behavioral research in China has largely been conducted without a guiding theoretical framework [52]. behavior. 113-134. Results from correlational and measurement modeling analysis indicated adequate measurement reliability for the proposed PMT scale structure. "A Protection Motivation Theory of Fear Appeals and Attitude Change," Journal of Psychology (91:1), pp. Chi-square test indicated that on average boys had greater intention to smoke and smoked significantly more cigarettes than girls did (p<0.01 for both). This article shows how sanctioning rhetoric can improve the effectiveness of fear-appeal manipulations. Thus, PMT includes both threat and coping appraisals, making it particularly useful to explain why people engage in unhealthy behaviors, such as smoking, despite the well-known health risks. Scott R. Boss, Dennis F. Galletta, Paul Benjamin Lowry, Gregory D. Moody, and Peter Polak (2015). 93-114. This is essential for understanding smoking behavior among Chinese youth to support more effective tobacco use prevention. Fear, fear appeal, threat severity, threat susceptibility, self-efficacy, response efficacy, response costs, maladaptive intrinsic rewards, maladaptive extrinsic rewards, threat appraisal, coping appraisal, adaptive response, maladaptive response. 2012. Among Chinese adolescents, it is estimated that 33.3–47.8% of males and 12.8–24.3% of females have initiated smoking (i.e., have smoked at least once), and 15.0–18.30% of males and 1.7–4.0% of females are current smokers [29–33]. Following PMT theory and the published data, the lead author of this article drafted individual items (4–5 items per sub-construct). ehavioral intention is presumed to directly impact actual behavior (Maddux & Rogers, 1983; Rogers, 1975). We developed an instrument The response efficacy construct was the strongest predictor of the motivation of protection (ß = − 0.44, p < 0/001). ), New York, NY: Plenum Press, pp. The theory has undergone several revisions since it was first published [2–7]. Despite these limitations, this study was the first to evaluate a scale measuring PMT constructs to understand cigarette smoking among Chinese adolescents. We also thank the staff at Wuhan Centers for Disease Prevention and Control who generously devoted their time and effort to administer the survey and process the data. Using the Protection Motivation Theory construct of coping appraisal, the parents would be lectured on the effectiveness of different weight loss strategies for children, such as playing games or sports for physical activity and learning different healthy snack food options for kids. J Addict Res Ther. Understanding anti-plagiarism software adoption: An extended protection motivation theory perspective. According to the coping appraisal construct of Protection Motivation Theory, before people will adopt a recommended behavior, they need proof that it works. Liang, H., and Xue, Y. "Fear Appeals and Information Security Behaviors: An Empirical Study," MIS Quarterly (34:1), pp. Education is established for middle school graduates who did not advance to high... 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